Posts Tagged ‘FET’
Transistors – Voltage Regulation Part XVI
Monday, November 5th, 2012
Transistors – Voltage Regulation Part VIII
Sunday, September 9th, 2012| Back in the early 1970s my dad, a notorious tightwad, coughed up several hundred dollars to buy his first portable color television. That was a small fortune back then. The TV was massive, standing at 24 inches wide, 18 inches high, and 24 inches deep, and weighing in at about 50 pounds. I think the only thing that made this behemoth “portable” was the fact that it had a carrying handle on top.
A major reason for our old TV being so big and clunky was of course due to limitations in technology of the time. Many large, heavy, and expensive electronic components were needed to make it work, requiring a lot of space for the circuitry. By comparison, modern flat screen televisions and other electronic devices are small and compact because advances in technology enable them to work with far fewer electronic components. These components are also smaller, lighter, and cheaper. Last time we looked at the components of a simple unregulated power supply to see how it converts 120 volts alternating current (VAC) to 12 volts direct current (VDC). We discovered that the output voltage of the supply is totally dependent on the design of the transformer, because the transformer in our example can only produce one voltage, 12 VDC. This of course limits the supply’s usefulness in that it is unable to power multiple electronic devices requiring two or more voltages, such as we’ll be discussing a bit further down. Now let’s illustrate this power supply limitation by revisiting our microprocessor control circuit example which we introduced in a previous article in this series on transistors.
Figure 1
In Figure 1 we have to decide what kind of power to supply to the circuit, but we have a problem. Sure, the unregulated power supply that we just discussed is up to the task of providing the 12 VDC needed to supply power for the buzzer, light, and electric relay. But let’s not forget about powering the microprocessor chip. It needs only 5 VDC to operate and will get damaged and malfunction on the higher 12 VDC the current power supply provides. Our power supply just isn’t equipped to provide the two voltages required by the circuit. We could try and get around this problem by adding a second unregulated power supply with a transformer designed to convert 120 VAC to 5 VAC. But, reminiscent of the circuitry in my dad’s clunky old portable color TV, the second power supply would require substantially more space in order to accommodate an additional transformer, diode bridge, and capacitor. Another thing to consider is that transformers aren’t cheap, and they tend to have some heft to them due to their iron cores, so more cost and weight would be added to the circuit as well. For these reasons the use of a second power supply is a poor option. Next time we’ll look at how adding a transistor voltage regulator circuit to the supply results in cost, size, and weight savings. It also results in a more flexible and dependable output voltage. ____________________________________________ |
Transistors – Voltage Regulation Part II
Sunday, July 29th, 2012| I joined the Boy Scouts of America as a high schooler, mainly so I could participate in their Explorer Scout program and learn about electronics. I will forever be grateful to the Western Electric engineers who volunteered their personal time to stay after work and help me and my fellow Scouts build electronic projects. The neatest part of the whole experience was when I built my first regulated power supply with their assistance inside their lab. But in order to appreciate the beauty of a regulated power supply we must first understand the shortcomings of an unregulated one, which we’ll begin to do here.
Last time we began to discuss how the output voltage of an unregulated power supply can vary in response to power demand, just as when sprinklers don’t have sufficient water flow to cover a section of lawn. Let’s explore this concept further.
Figure 1
Figure 1 shows a very basic representation of a microprocessor control system that operates three components, an electric relay (shown in the blue box), buzzer, and light. These three components have a certain degree of internal electrical resistance, annotated as RR, RB, and RL respectively. This is because they are made of materials with inherent imperfections which tend to resist the flow of electric current. Imperfections such as these are unavoidable in any electronic device made by humans, due to impurities within metals and irregularities in molecular structure. When the three components are activated by the microprocessor chip via field effect transistors, denoted as FET 1, 2 and 3 in the diagram, their resistances are connected to the supply circuit. In other words, RR, RB, and RL create a combined level of resistance in the supply circuit by their connectivity to it. If a single component were to be removed from the circuit, its internal resistance would also be removed, resulting in a commensurate decrease in total resistance. The greater the total resistance, the more restriction there is to current flow, denoted as I. The greater the resistance, the more I is caused to decrease. In contrast, if there is less total resistance, I increases. The result of changing current flow resistance is that it causes the unregulated power supply output voltage to change. This is all due to an interesting phenomenon known as Ohm’s Law, represented as this within engineering circles: V = I × R where, V is the voltage supplied to a circuit, I is the electrical current flowing through the circuit, and R is the total electrical resistance of the circuit. So, according to Ohm’s Law, when I and R change, then V changes. Next time we’ll apply Ohm’s Law to a simplified unregulated power supply circuit schematic. In so doing we’ll discover the mathematical explanation to the change in current flow and accompanying change in power supply output voltage we’ve been discussing. ____________________________________________ |
Transistors – Digital Control Interface, Part V
Sunday, July 15th, 2012| Last time we looked at my electric relay solution to a problem presented by a 120 volt alternating current (VAC) drive motor operating within an x-ray film processing machine. Now let’s see what happens when we press the button to set the microprocessor into operation.
Figure 1Figure 1 shows that when the button is depressed, the computer program contained within the microprocessor chip goes into action, signaling the start of the control initiative. 5 volts direct current (VDC) is supplied to Output Lead 2, and FET 2 (Field Effect Transistor 2) becomes activated, which allows electric current from the 12 VDC supply to course into the 12 VDC electric relay, through the relay’s wire coil, then conclude its travel into electrical ground. The electric relay components, including a wire coil, steel armature, spring, and normally open (N.O.) contact, are shown within a blue box in our illustration. Current flow is represented by red lines. The control initiative passes from the microprocessor to FET 2, and then to the 12 VDC electric relay, just as the Olympic Torch is relayed through a system of runners. We learned in one of my previous articles on industrial control that when an electric relay coil is energized, electromagnetic attraction pulls its steel armature towards the wire coil and the N.O. electrical contact. In Figure 1 this attraction is represented by a blue arrow. With the N.O. contact closed the drive motor is connected to the 120 VAC input, and the motor is activated.
Figure 2
Figure 2 shows what happens after the button is depressed. The computer program is activated, directing the microprocessor chip to keep 5 VDC on Output Lead 2 and FET 2 while the prerequisite 40 minutes elapses. Thus the relay remains energized and the motor remains on during this time.
Figure 3
In Figure 3, at the end of the 40 minute countdown, the computer program applies 0 VDC to Output Lead 2. FET 2 then turns off the current flow to the relay and it begins to de-energize, causing the spring to pull the steel armature away from the N.O. contact and the 120 VAC power supply to be interrupted. The motor is deactivated. At the same time, the computer program applies 5 VDC to Output Lead 1 and FET 1 for 2 seconds. FET 1 turns on the flow of current through the buzzer, causing it to sound off and signal that the x-ray film processing machine is ready for use. Next time we’ll look at how transistors are used to regulate voltage within direct current power supplies like the one shown in Figure 3 above. ____________________________________________ |
Transistors – Digital Control Interface, Part IV
Monday, July 9th, 2012| The Olympic Torch relay, soon to culminate in London, is the grand daddy of all relays, starting in one country, traversing many others, then ending its journey at the site of the Olympic Games. It passes through many athletes’ hands while on its journey, its final purpose being to light the Olympic Flame. Less glamorous, though still useful, is the relay race that often takes place within digital controls.
Last time we looked at my design solution for the control of a microprocessor controlled medical x-ray film developing machine, where a field effect transistor (FET) acted as a digital control interface between a 5 volt direct current (VDC) microprocessor and a 12 VDC buzzer. Well, controlling the buzzer wasn’t the only function of the microprocessor. It also had to control a 120 volt alternating current (VAC) drive motor, the purpose of which was to move x-ray film through a series of processes within the machine. Yet another requirement was that the machine’s drive motor run 40 minutes upon activation by a start button, then shut off. One of the challenges presented by this specification was that an FET standing alone is only suited to control direct current devices like the buzzer, but not alternating current devices like electric motors. Direct current flows in one direction only when traveling through wire, and since an FET can only pass current in one direction it is the perfect match for those applications. Now, as the name would imply, alternating current flow alternates, that is, it reverses direction and varies in intensity many times each second. This is a scenario that FETs are not equipped to handle because they can’t deal with reverse flow. This meant that, for the purpose of my developing machine, I could not use an FET to directly control the 120 VAC motor. Now let’s take a look at Figure 1 to get a basic look at how I solved the problem. |
Transistors – Digital Control Interface, Part III
Sunday, July 1st, 2012| When I was in engineering school in the mid 1970s microprocessor chips were still a fairly new concept. Scientific calculators were the size of a brick back then, and they weighed almost as much, and there were no personal computers.
I remember doing homework on the UNIVAC 1108 mainframe computer at school. To program it I had to sit at a monster of a keypunching machine for which I punched an endless array of holes into paper cards. These holes acted as the programming logic to instruct the computer what functions to perform. The 1108 computer’s mainframe was so huge it was housed in an adjoining room the size of a house. Since the 1980s advances in microprocessor technology have increased computing power and dramatically reduced the size of components, making things like laptops, smart phones, and sophisticated electronic products possible. Last time we began looking at my design solution for the control of a machine which developed medical x-ray film and made use of a microprocessor chip to automate its operation. A field effect transistor (FET) acts as a digital control interface between its 5 volt direct current (VDC) microprocessor and a 12 VDC buzzer. Figure 1 shows what happens when someone presses the button to put everything into action and the microprocessor starts timing. Figure 1
With the button depressed the chip senses 5 VDC from the power supply on its input lead. This in turn signals the computer program to turn the product on. The program then begins counting down the minutes, all the while maintaining a 0 voltage output from the chip’s output lead. With no voltage present on its G lead, the FET does not permit electrical current to flow from the 12 VDC supply, through the buzzer, through D and S, and down to electrical ground. The buzzer remains silent.
Figure 2Figure 2 shows what happens when the program begins its 40-minute warming sequence. The chip raises the output lead voltage to 5 VDC and applies it to G, then the FET permits electric current to flow through it to ground from the 12 VDC supply and the buzzer. Now supplied with power, the buzzer sounds. Then, per programming instructions, after 2 seconds the program shuts off the voltage in the chip’s output lead, current is cut off, and the buzzer goes silent. Next time we’ll see how an FET can be used as an interface between a microprocessor and another higher powered device, that of a 120 VAC motor that’s used to move x-ray film through a series of processes within the developer.
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Transistors – Digital Control Interface, Part II
Sunday, June 24th, 2012| Not too long ago I was retained as an engineering expert to testify on behalf of a plaintiff who owned a sports bar. The place was filled with flat screen televisions that were plugged into 120 volt alternating current (VAC) wall outlets. To make a long story short, the electric utility wires that fed power to the bar were hit by a passing vehicle, causing the voltage in the outlets to increase well beyond what the electronics in the televisions could handle. The delicate electronics were not suited to be connected with the high voltage that suddenly surged through them as a result of the hit, and they overloaded and failed.
Similarly, lower voltage microprocessor and digital logic chips are also not suited to directly connect with higher voltage devices like motors, electrical relays, and light bulbs. An interface between the two is needed to keep the delicate electronic circuits in the chips from overloading and failing like the ill fated televisions in my client’s sports bar. Let’s look now at how a field effect transistor (FET) acts as the interface between low and high voltages when put into operation within an industrial product. I was once asked to design an industrial product, a machine which developed medical x-ray films, utilizing a microprocessor chip to automate its operation. The design requirements stated that the product be powered by a 120 VAC, such as that available through the nearest wall outlet. In terms of functionality, upon startup the microprocessor chip was to be programmed to first perform a 40-minute warmup of the machine, then activate a 12 volt direct current (VDC) buzzer for two seconds, signaling that it was ready for use. This sequence was to be initiated by a human operator depressing an activation button. The problem presented by this scenario was that the microprocessor chip manufacturer designed it to operate on a mere 5 VDC. In additional, it was equipped with a digital output lead that was limited in functionality to either “on” or “off” and capable of only supplying either extreme of 0 VDC or 5 VDC, not the 12 VDC required by the buzzer. Figure 1 illustrates my solution to this voltage problem, although the diagram shown presents a highly simplified version of the end solution.
Figure 1The illustration shows the initial power supplied at the upper left to be 120 VAC. This then is converted down to 5 VDC and 12 VDC respectively by a power supply circuit. The 5 VDC powers the microprocessor chip and the 12 VDC powers the buzzer. The conversion from high 120 VAC voltage to low 5 and 12 VDC voltage is accomplished through the use of a transformer, a diode bridge, and special transistors that regulate voltage. Since this article is about FETs, we’ll discuss transistor power supplies in more depth in a future article. To make things a little easier to follow, the diagram in Figure 1 shows the microprocessor chip with only one input lead and one output lead. In actuality a microprocessor chip can have dozens of input and output leads, as was the case in my solution. The input leads collect information from sensors, switches, and other electrical components for processing and decision making by the computer program contained within the chip. Output leads then send out commands in the form of digital signals that are either 0 VDC or 5 VDC. In other words, off or on. The net result is that these signals are turned off or on by the program’s decision making process. Figure 1 shows the input lead is connected to a pushbutton activated by a human. The output lead is connected to the gate (G) of the FET. The FET is shown in symbolic form in green. The FET drain (D) lead is connected to the buzzer and its source (S) lead terminates in connection to electrical ground to complete the electrical circuit. Remember, electric current naturally likes to flow from the supply source to electrical ground within circuits, and our scenario is no exception. Next time we’ll see what happens when someone presses the button to put everything into action.
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Transistors – Digital Control Interface, Part I
Monday, June 18th, 2012| In the navy, the captain is the brains behind a ship’s operations. He gathers information, makes important decisions, then issues orders. He’s not there to roll up his sleeves and swab the decks. The captain relies on the ship’s officers to act as an interface between himself and the sailors that perform the physical labor required on deck.
In this article we’ll see how the FET, that is, the field effect transistor, performs much the same role as the ship’s officers when it is used within electronic controls. There it acts as an interface between electronic components that issue commands and the electrical devices that carry them out. Last week we became familiar with field effect transistors and how their control of electrical current flow is analogous to how a faucet controls the flow of water. Although FETs can be used to vary the flow of current, they’re usually employed to perform a much simpler task, that of simply turning flow on or off, with no in-between modality. Like the captain of a ship, microprocessor and logic chips are the brains behind the operation in all sorts of industrial and consumer electronics. Figure 1 shows a few of them. Figure 1
The chips, which operate on low voltage, contain entire computer programs within them that gather information, make decisions, then instruct the higher voltage devices like motors, electrical relays, light bulbs, and audible alarms to follow. By “information,” I mean data signals received by the chip from its input connections to sensors, buttons, and other electrical components. This data informs the chip’s computer program of important operational information, like whether buttons have been pressed, switches are activated, and temperatures are normal. Based on this data, “decisions” are made by the chip using the logic contained within its program, then, depending on the decisions made, “commands” are issued by the chip. The commands, in the form of electrical output signals, are put into action by the work horses, the higher voltage devices. They, like a ship’s sailors, perform the actual physical work. There is one problem presented by this scenario, however. The electric output signals from the lower voltage chips are not suited to directly control the higher voltage devices because the signal voltage put out by the chips is too low. Even if the chip was designed to work at a higher voltage, the high level of current drawn by the motors, relays, and bulbs would lead to damage of the delicate circuitry within the chip. The chips must therefore rely on the FET to act as a digital control interface between them and the higher voltage devices, much as the ship’s captain depends on his subordinates to carry out his orders. Next week we’ll look at a real life example of how a digital interface is put into operation within an industrial product.
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Transistors
Sunday, June 10th, 2012| Back in the 60s my dad spent about $25 to buy a small transistor radio. That was a lot of money in those days, but well worth it. The new transistor technology allowed for a much less cumbersome radio to be produced. No more lugging around big radios armed with heavy vacuum tubes. In the years that followed the word transistor became a household word. They were employed in a variety of ways within televisions and other electronic devices, increasing both their reliability and functionality.
So what is a transistor and what does it do? It’s an electronic component, developed in the late 1940s. The first transistor was about as big as a softball and crudely made. As such, it was too impractical for commercial use. Then in the l950s technological advancements made commercial production of smaller, high-quality transistors possible. Transistors enjoyed widespread introduction to the consuming mainstream in the l960s, and since then they’ve been made in many different types, shapes, and sizes. Some are shown in Figure 1 below. Figure 1
A commonly used type of transistor is called a field effect transistor, or FET, one of which is shown in Figure 2. The FET has three metal leads which allow it to be connected into electrical circuits. These leads are referred to as the drain (D), the source (S), and the gate (G).
Figure 2
FET’s control the flow of current within an electronic circuit. A good way to understand what they do is to consider the analogy of water flowing through a faucet.
Figure 3
Figure 3 shows a faucet, complete with valve and handle. With the valve closed the flow of water is completely shut off. If the valve is opened partway by rotation of the handle, a trickle of water emerges. The more the handle is turned and valve is opened, the greater the flow of water. The FET shown in Figure 4 operates a lot like a faucet, but with regard to electrical current. Figure 4
The FET controls the flow of current flowing through its D and S leads, but it does not employ a valve or handle to do it. Rather, flow rate is controlled by application of a small amount of voltage to the G lead. The voltage’s influence on the G lead influences the FET to permit current to flow in through the D lead, then out through the S lead. The amount of voltage applied to the G lead is directly related to how much current will be allowed to flow. In this example the D lead on the FET is connected to a 10 volt direct current (VDC) power supply. The S lead is connected to a flashlight bulb which is connected to electrical ground. If you will remember from previous blogs, electric current naturally wants to flow from the supply source to ground, much like water wants to naturally flow downhill. If the bulb was connected directly to the 10 VDC power supply, current would flow through unimpeded and the bulb would light. However, in Figure 4 the FET acts as a regulating device. It’s connected between the 10 VDC power supply and the bulb. When no voltage is applied to the G lead the FET acts like a closed valve and current is unable to flow. Without current we, of course, have no light. When a low amount of voltage, say one volt, is applied to the G lead, the FET acts like a partially opened valve. It permits a trickle of current to flow from the 10 VDC supply to the bulb, and the bulb glows dimly. As voltage to G increases the FET valve opens further, permitting more current to flow. The bulb glows with increasing brightness. When the voltage applied to G increases to the point the FET valve is opened fully, in our example that is 2 volts, full current is allowed to flow from the 10 VDC supply to the bulb. The bulb glows brightly. Generally speaking, the voltage required to be applied to G for control of current flow through an FET depends on overall design and the particular application within an electrical circuit. FETs are often used within electronic devices to turn things on and off, with no other function in between. Next time we’ll look at some example circuits to see how it’s done. ____________________________________________ |
